Ethical Compensation

Employees expect companies to stick to certain standards that represent fairness (Compensation Dilemmas: An Exercise In Ethical Decision-Making 1995). Early efforts of economic views have studied compensation systems over the years. The all-encompassing view at the time was that the best possible compensation systems met the fair days wage for a fair days work criteria. The key for managers and others who design pay systems Is to ensure that pay accurately reflected the economic value added to the firm by a worker.This is where fairness is expressed only in economic terms. Since that time management scholars have developed a much richer understanding of what fairness means to employees and how views of fairness affect their attitudes and behaviors. Compensation systems also play Important social and representational roles in organizations and through these roles pay systems affect a variety of Important outcomes such as the nature of employee commitment and performance and work relat ionships.Given the essential role that compensation systems play in employment relationships, it is also very likely hat they play an important role in shaping whether people feel they are treated with respect, trust, and dignity and whether they believe the values and customs of the organization are worthy of their fullest commitment and highest efforts (Bloom, M. 2004). Could executive compensation be redefined by performance management? â€Å"When no performance measures are defined and documented for company executives, this places no accountability on the CEO to produce measurable results.On the other hand, if performance measures are defined, documented and accountability is laced on the CEO and is tied to compensation this could prove to be beneficial for all involved. While employees are paid based on established Job classification systems, Coo's however arbitrarily negotiate salaries where there Is no cap, but benefactor. The company is injured by way of a harmful image in the eyes of the industry. The consumers of the company's products or services are also hurt. The company may also experience retention problems and stockholders may suffer from financial loss.Also employees are left to deal with disappointment, bitterness and owe morale (Carter, C. 2009). Americans are fuming right now. Pummel by the bind of a painful recession and furious over oversized executive compensation packages at the very Wall Street firms widely blamed for the economic chaos, they gradually distrust key establishments and individual leaders. Americans are angered at the financial services region. They believe that these institutions have rigged the game so that top level executives are rewarded substantially even when they fail. Americans want action to restore fairness to the system and get pay back in line.The variety of experts and activists of political leaders and ordinary citizens, there is a belief that executive incentives have exaggerated short-term performance, supported unnecessary risk-taking, and failed to discipline poor performance. Many believe that incentive plans have tempted some Coos to put personal financial interests in front of good stewardship that provides the long-term interests of their organizations (Ethics Resource Center, 2010). In recent years it has become common for corporate board of directors to recruit a star chief executive officer with an executive severance cage.The severance agreement becomes part of a contractual commitment that is often unrelated to the circumstances of the executive's eventual firing. To complicate matters, severance is often structured as deferred compensation for an executive's earlier successes, before things would eventually fall apart. When a CEO is discredited they always argue that they were not overpaid at termination because the rise in share price they achieved for stockholders during their tenure with the company. Companies should not make severance commitments when hiring execut ives.This will come back to haunt them. This style could make it difficult for firms trying to hire top talent. A CEO with ethics would be embarrassed when receiving an abundant severance after their decisions caused severe anguish to the employees and shareholders (Kipling, K. 2008). Addressing specific errors in compensation plans is critical and identifying the best metrics for measuring performance is part of the answer. Maybe creating an ethical organization is a critical first step that sets the stage for effective compensation plans.Ethical performance should be one of the metrics for determining compel;sensation. Many of the problems credited to failed compensation plans are really about ethical slip ups. I'm not saying that executives intentionally engage in bad conduct. But it can mean that a lack of continuous focus on ethics can induce bad behavior. This behavior can turn into rationalizing decisions without truly centering on the allegations for the long-term well-being of the customers, its employees, shareholders and the company as a whole (Ethics Resource Center, 2010).Executive compensation is not illegal. However the actions of some Coo's and executives can be ethically questionable. From the viewpoint of economic effectiveness, restructuring or even downsizing may be required in order to arrive at specific business goals. Although, making the decision to eliminate Jobs while the CEO is overly compensated for providing inadequate performance is not only feeble make a incredible impact by educating board of directors on accountability in executive packages, compensation and incorporating strategic performance management initiativ

Cool Character in a Chilly Climate Essay

The protagonist in Jack London’s To Build a Fire implies a character that is cool, calm, and collected under the pressures of loneliness and landscape. The text suggests that the man is alone in the Artic wilderness of Alaska with all it’s dangers and natural mysteries. London’s character seems to be a direct contrast to his surroundings, where the land is seemingly limitless and wondrous, the man is limited and admittedly, without imagination. Similarly, in contrast with the timeless and constantly changing character of the natural world is the character of the man, who displays serious calculation and conscious, purposeful action. Though the man does show signs of fear and apprehension, it becomes apparent that he wants to believe that he is stronger than his surroundings and that his feelings do not reflect a defect in his own character. In the end the man meets his demise by realizing that nature is more powerful and swift than man with all his equipment and thoughts. The most important feat for the man becomes the simple ability to build a fire. Early on in the text, it is stated that the man was of no imagination and for this reason had little appreciation for the wilderness and all the elements that he simply noted in his life and on this journey. â€Å"The trouble with him was that he was without imagination. He was quick and alert in the things of life, but only in the things, and not in the significances†. It was, in fact, the significances that the man would learn that were of the greatest consequence. Although, he was warned by an older man to never travel alone, the man paid no mind to this warning and believed that he could conquer nature alone. The man, alone in the wilderness and only in the company of his dog, was also experiencing an emptiness in his thoughts. â€Å"Empty as the man’s mind was of thoughts, he was keenly observant, and he noticed the changes in the creek, the curves and bends and timber-jams, and always he sharply noted where he placed his feet†. The man is one of action and not of much contemplation, even his emotions seem hollow and are compared to the fears that his dog instinctively experiences. But, it is due to this emptiness and lack of appreciation of the severity and vastness of nature and his human nature that leads him to falter and step into the creek, even as observant as he believed he was. It is to build a fire that is the most unnatural and to the man, impossible ability of humankind. The feat of the most primitive men in history was the only thing that could save the man’s life, but he had to surrender to the power and forces of nature. â€Å"He knew there must be no failure. When it is seventy-five below zero, a man must not fail in his first attempt to build a fire–that is, if his feet are wet†. Just as the man had the capacity to know that he must succeed in his attempt to build a fire, knowing this and believing that his ability to think would allow him to conquer nature was his downfall. In conclusion, the man in â€Å"To Build a Fire†, believes himself to be strong and smart, but not imaginative or appreciative of the wilderness around him. He serves as a direct contrast to the world around him, as he uses his watch, matches, and other man-made objects on his journey. With all that his has in his intentions and his arsenal of equipment, he must surrender to the power of nature that knows no time, no mercy, and no limit. Works Cited London, Jack. (1908). â€Å"To Build a Fire† in To Build a Fire and Other Stories (1999). Macmillan

Movie Boiler Room Legal Perspective Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Movie Boiler Room Legal Perspective - Essay Example him shares on Farrow Tech offering information that the company has a revolutionary new drug that will soon be approved by the Food and Drug Administration. On the promise of high returns, he lures the buyer by initially selling a minimum amount on the basis of testing the waters. Then, when the stocks have had a minimal percentage gain, Harry would fall at ease with Seth as his broker. However, when the stocks dropped, Harry wanted to pull out his money but Seth reels him back in by declaring he has information that the drug will actually soon be approved. He pushes it further claiming there is another product to hit the market and eventually was successful in attaining a $50,000 dollar investment from Harry. The latter had consequently invested his family’s entire savings (Younger, Boiler Room). These actions constitute fraud in the inducement contrary to law. The elements of this kind of fraud are: â€Å"1. a false representation; 2. of a fact; 3. that is material and; 4. made with knowledge of its falsity and the intention to deceive (scienter); and 5. which representation is justifiably relied on† (Mann and Roberts 211). More specifically, it is fraud through false representations. Since ordinarily, nondisclosure in sales does not constitute an actionable offense, the misrepresentation must have the following requisites: â€Å"(1) a person fails to disclose a fact known to him; (2) he knows that the disclosure of that fact would correct a mistake of the other party as to a basic assumption on which that party is making the contract; and (3) nondisclosure of the fact amounts to a failure to act in good faith and in accordance with reasonable standards of fair dealing† (Mann and Roberts 211-212). There is material false representation in the movie since all the information Seth told Harry were not based on any factual assertion but were just fabrications made by JT Marlin . Based on these representations, people bought the shares he offered. In fact, despite

The American 2010 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The American 2010 - Essay Example In his attempts to disengage from death and to connect to the rest of the world, the filmmakers must find ways to emotionally express these changes through the way in which the production is designed. Plot Summary and Critic’s Reviews There is a unique twist in the plot of The American, the story not following the normal hit man thriller formulation that one might expect. Clooney plays a man who is good at his craft, making unique weapons that are used for creative assassinations. This is not done with some type of fantastical or over the top, â€Å"Q† from James Bond sort of way, but with a sense of realism. The brooding nature of the film helps to frame this profession, the seriousness of the ‘business’ of death relevant to the structure of the story. Clooney’s character, Jack, wants to be at the end of his career, the most recent event of an ambush bringing his attention to the fact that he was lucky to have survived the many close calls in his li fe. When he goes to Italy and to the town in which he is to make his last weapon, he begins to reach out, but almost imperceptibly, to the others. The priest and the prostitute provide a contrast of moral natures, each providing a part of the human contact that he has been without for most of his life. Film critic Rebecca Murray sees Jack’s relationships with the priest and the prostitute as cold and unresponsive. While both characters seem to be fascinated by Jack, he gives them very little in return, their investment in his attention far greater than his in theirs. Murray describes the film as being vacant, without much action or dialogue, thus leaving the film viewer as empty as Jack in the way in which they are limited in engaging with the film. She says â€Å"Even the charm and talent of Clooney can’t make Jack accessible to the audience as he’s trying to stay alive†. The American was not a critical success with average film viewers. According to Mur ray, â€Å"The American doesn’t capitalize on its uniqueness, taking leaps in storytelling and using far too many coincidental events to move things forward†. The problem with the film is created through the conflict of having an unsympathetic, emotionally crippled character and trying to evoke sympathy and emotional connectivity from the audience. It can be accomplished, but it is a tough project for a director to do it with success. According to Clabough, Clooney’s character establishes earlier on in the film that he is not a good guy, thus disconnecting the audience from their sympathy with him. Clabough states â€Å"Jack has loyalties to no one but himself, a malevolent character trait exemplified early in the film when Jack must kill the woman with whom he just made love to protect his own identity, though he is ridden with guilt that often materializes in nightmares†. Unfortunately, he never really turns that corner to reconnect or create a sympathe tic reaction from the way in which the story unfolds after his unsympathetic nature is revealed. Clabough sees no point to the character of the priest, his appearances only seeming to provide an opportunity for dialogue. The critic feels that this is one more opportunity for Hollywood to attack Christianity through revealing that the priest has a child out of wedlock, thus should not have put himself up as one to judge Jack about

A statical review and analysis of the effects of Coca and Tea Intake Essay

A statical review and analysis of the effects of Coca and Tea Intake on Blood Pressure - Essay Example major steps: (1) Selection of studies; (2) The statistical procedures carried out to ensure that there was no publication bias and data heterogeneity was actually; (3) The actual data comparison on the effect of coffee and tea intervention on blood pressure. Selection of studies. Prospective articles for the meta-analysis were selected from the results of searches performed on major electronic medical databases (SCOPUS, EMBASE, and MEDLINE), the Science Citation Index, and the Cochrane Controlled Trials Registry. Matches were found using the search items â€Å"chocolate,† â€Å"cocoa,† â€Å"tea,† â€Å"blood pressure,† â€Å"cardiovascular,† â€Å"endothelium† and â€Å"hypertension.† From the search, 3106 articles were screened for relevance, but only 454 were retrieved for assessment. From these, 409 studies were screened out because neither tea nor coffee was reported to have an effect on blood pressure. More studies were excluded because they were only observational, have incomplete randomization or outcome, treatment was shorter than 7 days, and used only supplements. Finally, only ten papers were included: five studied the effects of coffee and the other five studied effects of tea on blood pressure. All were randomized controlled trials on at least 10 adults. Data was extracted from the papers independently by two investigators, and then an eleven point Jadad scale was used to evaluate the trials. Jadads scale is a five questions scale, originally used to assess the quality of clinical trials. It asks about randomization, double –blinding, description of withdrawals from the study, description of the blinding and randomization (Clark, Castro and Filho). The interrater coefficients of agreement (kappa-ÃŽ º) were 0.94 for data extraction, and 0.89 for the quality of the trials. Participants were determined to be unblinded to the interventions. The changes in the systolic and diastolic blood pressures in cocoa, tea or control groups were presented as

Hegel's impact on Christianity 19th Century Europe and Kierkegaard's Research Paper

Hegel's impact on Christianity 19th Century Europe and Kierkegaard's opposition to his teachings on Christianity - Research Paper Example His belief was that Christianity was the best form of religion practiced amongst all others and the Lutheran sect of Christianity was of a higher form when compared to Catholic, Puritan or Anglican sects. The main idea of Hegels dialectic is that all things and notions have internal contradictions. From Hegels point of view, understanding a thing or a notion will show that beneath the facade of an apparently simple view lies an inner contradiction. This inner contradiction would dissolve the simple form to a higher level, complex thing or idea that would properly withhold the contradiction. The triadic form of Hegel (being-nothingness-becoming/ immediate-mediate-concrete/ abstract-negative-concrete) describes this movement from inner contradiction to higher-level integration or unification ultimately gaining self realization which is the â€Å"absolute idea or knowledge† of mind and spirit or the closest, one can come to God. Hegel had given the need for dialectics and stated it is required to study things as they are and from there to show the bounds of partial classes of understanding. He referred to his dialectic as â€Å"the experience of consciousness† and its phen omenology as â€Å"the science of the experience of consciousness† (qtd. in Beiser 20). At the time of German idealism which was started by Hegel along with Fichte and Schelling he borrowed Kants theory of immanent ism and made it more radical or fundamental. Kant had modified enlightenments dogmatic emphasis on the world that is empirical and Hegel approved of it. However Kant had progressed till the â€Å"idealism of the finite† and according to Hegel it was not enough. Hegel wanted to develop idealism further so that faith and knowledge are inter-related and gelled together in the Absolute. He said that the traditional age old evidences of Gods existence were the

The British Industrial Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

The British Industrial Revolution - Essay Example It is a period of modernisation is various aspects of life including social changes and other economic changes that signify a great stride in the life of the society. Industrial development of any society is closely related to the innovations which help to change the nature of life of the society. It is marked by large-scale development of energy. In this case there is increased use of energy and metallurgy production. Industrialization also comes with philosophical changes in the societies. In this regard the society adopts different attitudes toward the surroundings and most of all a changing perception of the nature and the components of nature. There have been arguments on the methods that are used to measure the level of industrialization of any nation. There are some who use the amount of energy that is being used by a nation to measure the level of advancement while at het same time there are those who use other aspects of civilization like advancement in education and social life in order to gauge the level of industrial. However industrial has been described as a period of general development which cannot be measured using one aspect only. This means that there are various political and social changes in light of the economic development that are taking place. There are some factors that have been identified by key researchers to gauge the level of industrialization. Some of these factors include a favourable political-legal environment for the advancement of commerce and industries, abundance use of natural resources and plentiful supply of low cost labour which is able to suit the demands of the world. Industrial revolution in England England was one of the states which experience industrial revolution as early as 1700s. Between 1760 and 1860, there was a marked period of technological progress which was also reflected in education and increasing capital stock in the market. This helped to transform England from a pre-industrialized nation to a full industrialized nation. There were different chains that were taking place in the society from the agriculture, manufacturing and transportation sectors which helped to shape the socioeconomic life of the people. There was also a profound change in the culture of the people which spread the whole of Europe though the 18th and 19th century. In the 1700s, there was a great replacement of manual labour in Great Britain with one dominated by machines. This stated with the seemly mechanisation of the textile industry which was aimed at making sure that there was efficiency in production. There was the development of the iron-making technology which increase the use and the refinery of coal. There was increased trade between different communities and European counties due to the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. There was increased capacity of production of textile industry with the invention of the steam power which used coal as the main energy and powered machinery which was used in the textile industry. The development of the metallic machine tools helped to facilitate increased production in the manufacturing industries. From the first revolution to the second industrial revolution, there were eminent changes that were taking place in the society and which helped to set a difference between the England society and the rest of the world.

Different instructional models widely used around the globe Essay

Different instructional models widely used around the globe - Essay Example After that we analyzed a lesson plan. We critically studied the strategy upon its merits and demerits. Lastly, We reviewed the assigned article and tried to filter out the need of academic or aptitude tests and their unwanted burden on our teachers, parents and most of all our students. There are different educational philosophies having different focal ideas. Perennialism, Essentialism and Progressivism are being followed education programs all over the world. Let’s explore the ideas in a little more detail. Firstly, Perennialists focus on the introduction of the western civilization and its approach towards facts that do not change. Humans rationalize things and thus need intellectual growth. In all the study programs today, it is on the highest priority to nourish humans with information as well as aesthetic taste e.g. arts, music, books, natural constants and so forth. Robert Maynard way back in 1963 developed a program that later further developed by Mortimer Adler. Secon dly, Essentialists believe that there is a set of moral and ethical knowledge that should be common for any student. Therefore, conservative approach of essentialism advocates for moral, ethical and cultural values that an institution should teach. In addition to more orthodox learning of reading, writing and computing, teachers should teach about respect, discipline or emotional expression and control etc. Thirdly, Progressivism believes that focus should be on the subject, in this case a child, and not on the content or a teacher. All students are born with the same capabilities but with different interests. Hence the deliverance should be more experimental oriented rather instructional. A single problem may be rationalized differently depending on the surroundings, physical arrangement and cultural setup. A scientifically designed program is adopted so that students acquire first hand knowledge. According to John Dewey, a staunch advocate of progressive education system, citizens should experience liberty in the school rather submissive and totally dictatorial environment. In the early 19th century, in United States schools were only accessible to wealthy citizens only. Social activists realized that to establish a healthy and a progressive society, education should be available to all. As a result of untiring efforts, by the end of the 19th century, elementary level education was available to all American citizens. In some states it was even compulsory. In the 20th century, Americans showed grate improvement and number of students graduating from high schools surged up to 85 percent. In the 20th century, Americans experienced global issues with a unique political setup like World War II, Vietnam War, Cold War era left deep impact on American education system. Beside that, a number of historically important internal events like the Great Depression and the Civil Rights Movement left their effects on the education system too. Today, being the World’s most powerful country United States has completely new set of responsibility. Composition of its multi-ethnic population has introduced new subjects in its education system to adhere different social setup intact in future. Similarly teachers’ training programs have been introduced to avoid any unrest in the society. Like other social and cultural units, the event of 9/11 has impacted the education system also. Steps have been taken to eliminate any racial profiling in the schools. However, there are other issues also to deal with. For instance, drugs, street or domestic violence and its psychological effects, sex abuse, alcohol abuse and smoking issues. American educatio

Bernard Arnault And His Duality Pioneering Act Of Lvmh Essay

Bernard Arnault And His Duality Pioneering Act Of Lvmh - Essay Example Global firms have the whole world as its market field that they can offer a wide array of products and services - firms keep growing while others downsize or rightsize. One aspect of globalization is that firms can assign departmental functions, such as marketing, finance, operations, human resource management, and accounting to other firms – this is known as outsourcing. Global firms use many different structural forms in dealing with globalization. They can use the horizontal structure which is made easier with the availability of the internet and Information Technology. It is still possible with the old structure, i.e., the vertical structure where the top echelon of the organization can dictate or take hold of the reins of business even if they are in the other side of the world. Whether we see this as positive or negative, globalization has change the world in terms of commerce and trade and how we see the world in different perspectives.After the world economic downturn, some of Europe’s giant firms have continued to keep watch the playing arena of businesses in terms of acquisitions and mergers. They have turned their eyes on the emerging markets of China, India and other countries of Asia. This is because these emerging markets survived and made remarkable steps during the financial crisis. And this is one of the reasons why Bernard Arnault, who is believed to be Europe’s wealthiest man, has shifted business focus to Asia, particularly the emerging markets of China and India.... This is because these emerging markets survived and made remarkable steps during the financial crisis. And this is one of the reasons why Bernard Arnault, who is believed to be Europe’s wealthiest man, has shifted business focus to Asia, particularly the emerging markets of China and India. Combine these two countries in terms of population, you have approximately one third of the world’s peoples who have the urge and the motivation to buy consumer products. In China, particularly Shanghai, the motivation is on luxury products, which is why Bernard Arnault has his own ambassador there in the person of John Galliano. Arnault has made business trips using his private jet to wherever he wants to promote the latest of his treasured bags and perfumes. He has made instant visits to places as far as Morocco not only to promote but to measure how much profits the company has earned there. 2. Background of Bernard Arnault and LVMH Bernard Arnault is not only Europe’s weal thiest businessman with an estimated worth of $39 billion, he is a multi-talented and product-oriented artist. He has acquired brands from bags to perfume and has made corporate acquisitions one after another. He describes his quest for perfection as a ‘duality’ which should be reinforced immediately with â€Å"timelessness and utmost modernity†. His desire to acquire businesses is not only motivated by finances but by his dream to infuse art on commerce (or commerce on art). And he is doing this because he believes he is doing it for France and the people who patronize LVMH. His modernity and art includes a collection of modern and contemporary art which will soon be housed in a grand museum designed by Frank Gehry, which Arnault has

Economic System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economic System - Essay Example Free market economic system induces competition among different companies for there is no external evaluation. Presence of numerous competing companies brings great benefits to the consumers. Each company would strive to give their best as they would be thrown out of the market if found inferior. Free market permits full competition between companies. This would force companies to offer their best goods and services so that they will not be neglected by the consumers. Companies would compete in making better cheaper products in free market economies. Higher quality services and excellent products would fill the market because of competing companies. Free market also offers better freedom to consumers as they would be free to buy what they choose. Free market is therefore considered more effective than other economic systems. Mixed economy does not offer freedom and choice for consumers as well as companies. Restrictions, interferences and extreme control over business activities woul d discourage businesses. Excessive control would also make businesses incur more costs. Restrictions would limit certain companies with providing competitive products and services. This would make consumers deprived of numerous choices that they enjoy in a free market system. Mixed economy system is thus considered less efficient than free market system. ... If free market system is imposed, business would flourish, producing varieties of products. More people would continue to buy products and services as numerous varieties of products and services arrive in the market. As businesses grow and flourish more people would be hired for work. This would lessen the problem of unemployment in the society. If businesses flourish and expand the society would be freed of unemployment. This would stimulate the economy and brings an overall growth. In a mixed economy there would be heavy taxation and external interferences. Excessive taxation would affect the incentives and benefits directly. This would discourage people so that they would not work efficiently. Lack of incentives dishearten employees and make them deliver less work. This would affect companies and the products they offer. This hampers development in all sectors of the society. Mixed economic system is thus considered less efficient than a free market economy. In a free market econo mic system agreements are made faster compared to a mixed economy system. Interference from government would slow down the agreements in a mixed economy system. Governments are notoriously slow in making decisions and implementing it. Policy making takes its own time and delays all the subsequent activities. Government would make decisions and assign the work to the concerned departments. This allocation, decision-making and implementation lag and often shift towards a pending status. Allocation of resources and its disbursement also get delayed in a system where government is in control. In a free market economic system such delays and laggings are absent as there is no intervention or restriction from the

Sex education in school Essay Example for Free

Sex education in school Essay A big topic in todays society is whether or not a child should have sex education in school. Almost everyday you hear about how the numbers of teens having sex and the rates of teenage pregnancy is skyrocketing. Can this somehow be prevented by encouraging that sex education be included in the curriculum in school? Dont we send our children to school to learn and get an education? Than why should schools not educate our children about sex and help stress that abstinence is best? Sex education is not helping to promote that a child go out and engage in sexual activity, it merely educates them on the consequences of having sex and makes them aware of ways to protect themselves if they do choose to engage in sexual activity. It is important to educate our children on sex and how to protect themselves. Many parents agree that sex education should not be taught to children in school. Are these parents willing to take time out of their busy schedule to sit their children down and have a one on -one conversation with their child about sex? Do they themselves know all there is to know about sex and are up-to-date on STDs and contraceptives? A child may not feel comfortable talking to their parents about sex leading them to rush their parents through the conversation and not fully grasping the ideas on information their parents are trying to get across to them. If they were in school being taught, amongst friends, they would be forced to listen plus they might feel comfortable enough to ask questions pertaining to things they may not understand. Teachers went through college to get a degree in teaching; parents didnt unless they themselves are a teacher. Parents would be more likely to tell their children information that is not correct or is outdated. The point of sex education is not to promote kids to go out and engage in sexual activity, it is to promote abstinence and educate kids on STDs and how to protect themselves if they do decide to engage in sexual activity. If a child is going to have sex should they not be educated on the consequences of having sex and informed on how to protect themselves and their partner from such things as pregnancy and STDs? Should they not be told of the contraceptives that are out there specifically to protect them from certain  diseases that might someday lead to their death? If a child is going to engage in sexual activity we should at least take the liberty and help educate them so that they know what the consequences are and how to avoid certain problems. Its better to be safe then sorry, no parent wants to see their child suffer from a Std, get pregnant and possibly have to have an abortion, or contract a fatal disease such as Aids which in the end will lead to their death. Kids today are not as comfortable as they used to be about talking with their parents on such topics as sex or drugs. So where are they suppose to learn about these important topics? The streets? From friends? On T.V? Dont we send our children to school to learn and get an education? What better place, other than with their parents, is there to learn about such an important topic? Kids are going to be kids and go out there and experiment with things they know nothing about. It would be best if both the school system and parents teamed up to teach their kids about sex, but some kids are just not comfortable talking to their parents and may try to avoid the whole conversation completely. They may take what they learn from T.V or other friends about sex and apply it when they are engaged in sexual activity, which can lead to many outcomes that are not wanted. In a classroom atmosphere a child would be forced to learn about sex, abstinence, and ways to protect themselves. Most likely they would even be tested on the material, which would ensure that they know the material. Parents dont test kids on what they learned from their lectures. Kids are going to be kids, they are also our future and we need to educate them on the importance of abstaining from sex while also educating them how to be safe if they do choose to engage in sexual activity. Sex education is not promoting our kids to go out and have sex, its purpose is to inform and educate our children on the consequences of having sex while also making them aware that there are contraceptives out there to help protect them if they do choose to engage in sexual activity. Parents arent always the easiest or most update people to talk to about sex, at least in school atmosphere child would be forced to learn the information while also feeling more comfortable since they are around friends.

Polymer: The Glass Transition

Polymer: The Glass Transition Formulation Chemistry Polymer: The Glass Transition In the solid state, semicrystalline polymers exhibit both amorphous and crystalline morphology. The glass transition is a property of only the amorphous portion of a semi-crystalline solid. [1] The glass transition temperature, Tg, is the temperature at which the amorphous materials change between the glassy and rubbery form. 1.1 Amorphous and Crystalline Polymers The amorphous polymers consist of molecules that are oriented randomly, unlike the crystalline ones which have polymer chains packed in ordered, repeating patterns in the three-dimensional crystal lattice. However the glass transition is different to melting because only amorphous polymers undergo the glass transition. Melting is a transition that occurs in crystalline polymers when these chains are disoriented from the crystal structures and become liquid. A sample of semicrystalline polymer can be composed of both amorphous and crystalline portions, therefore it can have both a glass transition temperature and a melting temperature. 1.2 Glassy and Rubbery States Below Tg, the amorphous regions of a polymer are in a glassy state and most joining or contact bonds are intact. [2] The molecules may be able to vibrate slightly, but are virtually motionless in which portions of the molecule wiggle around. Therefore polymer is generally hard, brittle and rigid. As the polymer is heated until it eventually reaches its glass transition temperature, the molecules start to wiggle around. In inorganic glasses, more bonds are broken with increased thermal fluctuations; while in organic polymers, non-covalent bonds between chains also become weaker. By heating above Tg, there is long-range segmental motion where the polymer chains can move around easily. It is now described in its rubbery state which offers flexibility and softness for plastic deformation without fracture. Below Tg, the chains are firm and unbendable to relieve the force being applied. This is due to either (a) the chains are strong to resist the stress; or (b) the force applied is excessive for the motionless polymer chains to overcome, so the polymer sample will just break or shatter.[1] Such mobility with temperature is heavily dependent upon the â€Å"heat† content because Tg is a kinetic parameter. The Tg decreases with slower melt cooling rate. It is also affected by other factors listed in section 1.4. Heat is a form of kinetic energy that causes random motion of molecules and the pliability of polymer, in comparison to â€Å"cold† polymers which lack kinetic energy to move around and hence are brittle on cooling. Example of this behavior is the glass transition of chewing gum. It is soft and pliable at body temperature, characteristic of an amorphous solid in its elastic, rubbery condition. The gum then turns hard and rigid when it comes into contact with cold drink or ice cube in the mouth. 1.3 Glass Transition vs. Melting The differences are outlined in the table below: Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Theories and Treatment Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Theories and Treatment Introduction Modern cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) grew out of the merging of behavioural therapy, developed in the 1950s to 1970s, and cognitive therapy developed in the 1960s (Graham, 2004). Broadly, it attempts to deal directly with a clients manifest symptoms through both cognitive and behaviour strategies. Cognitive theories target particular irrational beliefs which are thought to be the source of behavioural and emotional problems. Historically, CBT is well-established in the treatment of anxiety disorders, but has only been adapted more recently for use in psychosis (Tarrier, 2002). This essay will first examine the theory and practical treatment of generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) using CBT. Then the treatment of psychosis will be considered in the same way, but concentrating on the similarities and differences to the treatment of anxiety. CBT Treatment of Generalised Anxiety Disorder The main feature of GAD is excessive and uncontrollable worry (Wells, 2002). The DSM-IV states that for a positive diagnosis of GAD, the worry must occur more days than not over a period of six months (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The DSM-IV also lists a number of somatic and cognitive symptoms which include, for example, muscle tension. A variety of different treatments have been used for GAD including both directive and non-directive therapies. Fisher Durham (1999) examine the effectiveness of different treatment methods and the number of clients making a full recovery. The most successful treatments in their meta-analysis were CBT which achieved a recovery rate of 51% and applied relaxation which achieved a 60% recovery rate. To understand how GAD is treated using CBT, it is necessary to understand the model of worry that it is based upon. Beck (1976) produced the most widely referenced model of anxiety which links emotions and thinking. In this model it is the patients thoughts and images relating to anticipated danger that immediately precede, and cause, anxiety attacks. In appraising their environment, anxious patients overestimate both the likelihood and severity of a negative event occurring and so take defensive action (Blackburn, 1995). Under the umbrella term of CBT a number of different approaches to treating GAD have been used. They normally focus on two main factors: cognitive work aimed at challenging the clients beliefs and thought processes as well as behavioural work teaching anxiety management strategies (Wells, 2002). Borkovec (2002) describes the cognitive aspect of CBT as focussing on how the client perceives the world and attempting to move this onto a more accurate footing. Generally, this is done by eliciting how the client is perceiving events in an anxious way. Then, the client is encouraged to apply logical thought processes to their own perceptions to challenge the way they are thinking. The therapist attempts to supplant these original thought processes with cognitive interpretations that do not lead to increased anxiety. Clients are usually given homework in which they attempt to identify anxiety attacks, what preceded them and what followed them. Hopefully, by demonstrating to the client that their catastrophic predictions do not occur in reality, it is possible to break down the automatic negative thoughts. Some researchers have been critical of this basic cognitive approach as it does not focus on meta-cognitive factors (Wells, 2002). A revision to the model has been added by Wells (1995) who introduces the distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 worry. Type 1 worry is that referred to above the worry about physical symptoms and external events. Type 2 refers to worrying, as it were, about worrying: meta-worrying. Type 1 worrying is dealt with in approximately the same manner described above, but greater focus is given here to Type 2 worrying. Type 2 cognitive interventions focus on two factors: the uncontrollability of the worrying and appraisals and beliefs about the dangers of worrying. Once negative meta-cognitions have been elicited, they can be challenged and worked with in the same way as before. An example of this type of metacognition is that a client can believe that worrying is harmful because it increases blood pressure and thereby this is harmful to the body (Wells, 2002). The therapist would address this by explaining that occasional high blood pressure is not associated with chronic health problems. The second aspect in treating anxiety by CBT is the use of behavioural strategies (Borkovec, 2002). This involves teaching the client techniques for relaxing their body such as meditation, progressive muscle relaxation and relaxing imagery. Clients are encouraged to practice these techniques even when they are not anxious so they feel comfortable with their implementation. In addition, in some circumstances clients will be exposed to situations which make them anxious in order to provide realistic practice opportunities (Borkovec, 2002). A further type of behavioural strategy employed is a stimulus control method. This involves the client in deciding on a period of the day in which worrying will be carried out, carrying out monitoring of their daily worrying, and trying to only worry in the designated period. Then, in the designated period of worrying, clients practice their cognitive skills. Two other techniques used are behavioural activation strategies encouraging the client to engage in more pleasant activities and imagery rehearsal techniques which involve practicing new responses to environmental cues likely to cause worry (Borkovec, 2002). CBT Treatment of Psychosis Unlike the symptoms of anxiety which can be stated relatively succinctly, the experiences of those with psychosis vary to a large degree. Those with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, for example, can suffer from hallucinations, delusions, perceptual anomalies as well as some associated problems like depression and anxiety itself (Garety, Fowler Kuipers, 2000). The CBT therapist will, therefore, be targeting a greater variety of symptoms than with anxiety, and usually over a much longer period: perhaps three or more times as many sessions as for anxiety. The use of CBT in psychosis was nevertheless developed from the techniques used to treat conditions like depression and anxiety (Tarrier, 2002). CBT is generally used in addition to powerful antipsychotic medications and is aimed at helping clients to better cope with their psychoses. CBT has been investigated in a number of different patient groups, the largest body addresses those with chronic conditions that are treatment-resistan t, with studies generally finding it to be effective (Sensky et al., 2000). More recent studies have found it to be effective in acute and recent-onset schizophrenia (Lewis et al., 2002). The theoretical model for CBT in psychosis is necessarily much broader than that used for anxiety. While the relations between thoughts, feelings and behaviour are important, these have to be set against wider issues. The causes of psychosis are usually multi-factorial and thought to stem from the social environment, biological vulnerability and psychological processes (Garety et al., 2000; see also the stress-vulnerability model: Strauss Carpenter, 1981). In order to reach an effective case formulation, therefore, the therapist needs to examine the confluence of these different factors along with the clients stresses, vulnerabilities and responses. Like anxiety, at the centre of the cognitive model of psychosis lies the idea that the therapist can address all the different types of symptoms by examining cognitive processes. One example Garety et al. (2000) point to was made by Frith (1992), which claims that symptoms of thought insertion are a result of deficits in normal cognitive self-monitoring processes. Similarly, the anxious component of psychosis is seen as resulting from maladaptive appraisals. At heart, the theoretical model of CBT for psychosis relies on the same fundamentals as that for anxiety: that making the client aware of these problematic thought processes will provide some relief. Where it differs theoretically is that it is addressing a wider variety of factors social and biological as well as psychological and so the treatment has to reflect this fact. Turning now to the practical aspects of CBT for psychoses, Garety et al. (2000) outline a six-stage process. The first involves building and maintaining a therapeutic relationship. This was taken for granted in the discussion of anxiety because, to a therapist, this is a given. With psychotic clients, though, there are significantly greater barriers to the building of a therapeutic relationship. The client may well suffer psychotic symptoms during sessions as well as being paranoid about and suspicious of those trying to help them. The second stage is providing cognitive-behavioural coping strategies for the positive symptoms of psychosis (Garety et al., 2000). Similarly to anxiety treatment, this might include reality testing on delusional thoughts, self-monitoring of symptoms and using distraction and withdrawal (Phillips Francey, 2004). The third stage involves attempting to understand the experience of psychosis. Here, the therapist attempts to bring together strands from the clients life and experiences and link them to their psychotic symptoms. Further, however, the therapist also looks to provide some sort of normalisation to the already high level stigmatisation associated with psychosis. This third stage in treating psychosis differs considerably from the treatment of anxiety, which generally does not address wider social issues in depth. Fourthly, the therapist will specifically examine hallucinations and delusions (Garety et al., 2000). This will often be hard as the client will have developed a series of beliefs that are heavily reinforced. These are addressed using standard CBT techniques such as those used in anxiety. Where the approach for psychosis differs, however, is that attempts to change long-held thoughts are not made until well into the therapeutic process and the therapists manner is slower and softer. In addition, compared to CBT for anxiety, there is less emphasis on the patient generating their own alternative interpretations, and more on the therapist providing them. Some clients may not even agree their beliefs are delusional and so the therapist has to work within the boundaries set by the client. The fifth aspect of CBT for psychosis as laid out by Garety et al. (2000) focuses on depression, anxiety and negative self-evaluations. Those suffering from psychosis will often have low self-esteem. This can be the result of long-standing negative self-evaluations which can be targeted by cognitive therapy techniques of reviewing how they arose and then providing a challenge to the thinking. Both depression and anxiety are also treated in this way. Finally, Garety et al. (2000) look at issues of social desirability and risk of relapse. Throughout therapy, the therapist is looking to the future and helping the client to think about their short and medium-term plans. While Garety et al.s (2000) model is influential, it should be noted that the treatment of psychoses, like that for anxiety, is not monolithic there are a variety of different formulations and approaches. Some focus more on particular aspects such as the delusions or coping strategies. Garety et al. (2000) argue, however, that many treatments are now becoming more integrated in order to address the wide range of symptoms in psychosis. Outcomes and Comorbidity The outcome research varies across different types of psychosis and so it is difficult to compare with anxiety outcomes. A further complication is the different methods used and the rapidly developing nature of CBT as an intervention. Psychosis is certainly harder to work with than anxiety because of the sheer number of factors involved and, as a consequence, the outcomes are generally not nearly as good as those for anxiety. One clear similarity between the CBT treatment of psychosis and that for anxiety is their comorbidity in psychotic disorders. Looking across bipolar disorder, schizoaffective disorder and schizophrenia, Cosoff Hafner (1998) found 43% to 45% of psychotic patients had a form of anxiety disorder. Indeed, in their sample, Cosoff Hafner (1998) found that, even though anxiety disorders are often responsive to treatment, none of the patients had been treated for it. Research has questioned whether anxiety might be a dimension of a psychotic disorder like schizophrenia while others suggest they form a subgroup of the patient population (Braga, Petrides Figueira, 2004). Supporting the dimensional view, Lysaker Hammersley (2006) have found a relationship between both delusions and inflexible thought (characteristic of psychosis) and higher levels of social anxiety. Further, looking at schizophrenia in particular, Braga, Petrides Figueira (2004) argue that much of the research shows better outcomes for those treated for comorbid anxiety. While the repertoire, order and specific implementation of techniques used in CBT differs between psychosis and anxiety, the therapeutic relationship will be central to success in both treatments. Factors that Beck Emery (1990) highlight include trust on the part of the client in the therapist, a collaborative approach and a focus on educational issues. Conclusion The treatment of both anxiety and psychosis with CBT is based on identical underlying principles. Theoretically, both approaches involve focussing on the types of attributions and automatic negative thoughts the client is experiencing as well as aspects of behaviour. Similarly, both approaches require a strong therapeutic alliance in order to be successful. The practical implementation of each intervention is, however, tailored for the disorder. The client suffering from psychosis is likely to have a much wider range of symptoms to deal with and, as such, CBT for psychosis generally takes longer and addresses more complex issues. Part of this will involve the therapist in attempting to understand and interpret the experience and causes of psychosis. This is in contrast to CBT for anxiety which will focus more on problem solving. There is evidence to suggest, however, that anxiety forms a part of certain psychoses, and in this situation its treatment should form part of a wider integr ated approach. Finally, outcomes in CBT for psychosis are generally more modest than in anxiety as psychotic symptoms are considerably more challenging for the therapist. References American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association. Beck, A. T. (1976) Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New York: International Universities Press. Beck, A. T., Emery, G. (1990) Anxiety Disorders and Phobias: A Cognitive Perspective. Cambridge: Perseus Books. Blackburn, I. M. (1995) Cognitive Therapy for Depression and Anxiety. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Borkovec, T. D. (2002) Psychological aspects and treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. In: D. J. Nutt (Ed.). Generalised Anxiety Disorder: Symptomatology, Pathogenesis and Management. London: Taylor Francis. Braga, R. J., Petrides, G., Figueira, I. (2004) Anxiety disorders in schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 45(6), 460-468. Cosoff, S. J., Hafner, R. J. (1998) The prevalence of comorbid anxiety in schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder and bipolar disorder. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 32(1), 67-72. Fisher, P. L., Durham, R. C. (1999) Recovery rates in generalized anxiety disorder following psychological therapy: An analysis of clinically significant change in the STAI-T across outcome studies since 1990. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1425-1434. Frith, C. D. (1992) The cognitive neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Garety, P. A., Fowler, D., Kuipers, E. (2000) Cognitive-behavioural therapy for people with psychosis. In: B. Martindale, A. Bateman, M. Crowe, F. Margison (Eds.). Psychosis: Psychological Approaches and Their Effectiveness Putting Psychotherapies at the Centre of Treatment. London: Gaskell. Graham, P. J. (2004) Introduction. In: P. J. Graham (Ed.). Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Children and Families. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lewis, S. W., Tarrier, N., Haddock, G., Bentall, R., Kinderman, P., Kingdon, D., Siddle, R., Drake, R., Everitt, J., Leadley, K., Benn, A., Grazebrook, K., Haley, C., Akhtar, S., Davies, L., Palmer, S., Faragher, B., Dunn, G. (2002) A randomised controlled trial of cognitive behaviour therapy in early schizophrenia: acute phase outcomes in the SOCRATES trial. British Journal of Psychiatry Supplement, 43, 91-97. Lysaker, P. H., Hammersley, J. (2006) Association of delusions and lack of cognitive flexibility with social anxiety in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Research, 86(1-3), 147-53. Phillips, L. J., Francey, S. M. (2004) Changing PACE: Psychological interventions in the prepsychotic phase. In: P. D. McGorry (Ed.). Psychological Interventions in Early Psychosis: A Practical Treatment Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Sensky, T., Turkington, D., Kingdon, D., Scott, J. L., Siddle, R., OCarroll, M., Barnes, T. R. (2000) A randomised controlled trial of cognitive- behavioural therapy for persistent symptoms in schizophrenia resistant to medication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 165-172. Strauss, J. S., Carpenter, W. T. (1981) Schizophrenia. New York: Plenum. Tarrier, N. (2002) Cognitive-behaviour therapy in the treatment of schizophrenia. In: H. Hafner (Ed.). Risk and Protective Factors in Schizophrenia: Towards a Conceptual Model of the Disease Process. Berlin: Steinkopff Verlag. Wells, A. (1995) Meta-cognition and worry: A cognitive model of generalised anxiety disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 301-320. Wells, A. (2002) Cognitive therapy for generalised anxiety disorder. In: F. W. Bond (Ed.) Handbook of Brief Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Southwest Airlines: Culture, Values and Operating Practices Southwest Airlines: Culture, Values and Operating Practices Rollin King planned to start low cost airlines that would shuttle passengers between San Antonio, Dallas and Houston. This idea came in his mind due to the complaint of businessmen about the delay of airlines. When all airlines were in losses at that time the Southwest Airlines were earning profit. It was because of the business strategy. They offered lowest and simple charges to get passengers to their destination on time and Muse wanted his executive team to be willing to think independently instead of worked on the institutional practices. One of the things that attract me a lot that there was a plan of profit sharing with senior employees that was first in the airline industry (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). What grade would you give Southwest management for the job it has done in crafting the companys strategy? What is it that you like or dislike about the strategy? Does Southwest have a winning strategy? Southwest airlines performed successful in the airlines industry. The company demonstrated the ability to quickly dominate markets. Here are some strategies that were really appreciable: Product Positioning Strategy: Southwest airlines carefully projected its image in front of customers and competitors. It offered ticketless travelling by not assigning seats to the passengers so that they could reach the destination on time (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). Price Strategy: Southwest airlines had offered the lowest domestic airlines charges. There was a plan of profit sharing with senior employees that was first in the airline industry (instituted in 1973) (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). Promotion Strategy: Southwest airlines wanted to concentrate more on customer preference and benefits. It encouraged its employees to dress casually at work and this created a positive image in front of the customers. (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). Digital Media Promotion: This was a first airline that developed a web site and online booking facility (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). One drawback of southwest airlines was that it was taking 6 to 12 rounds in a day. Fuel, air frames and diesel were very costly and southwest airline were not fully boarded. Hence the revenue generation was minimal and the airlines could not make sufficient profits (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). QUESTION 3 What are the key policies, procedures, operating practices, and core values underlying Southwests efforts to implement and execute its low-cost/no frills strategy? Some policies for the low cost are: The company was operating only one type of aircraft having 737 seats which minimized the spare parts, inventories, maintenance training, and proficient improvement. The company offered ticketless journey which eliminated the expenses of printing and processing paper tickets. The company was serving airports near metropolitan areas and medium sized cities that minimized fuel cost and helped to reach destination on time. Southwest was using point-to-point scheduling of flights instead of hub-and-spoke system which was more efficient in comparison with the later. Southwest didnt have first class section in any of the flights and offered only beverages and snacks (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). QUESTION 4 What are the key elements of Southwests culture? Is Southwest a strong culture company? Why or why not? What problems do you foresee that Gary Kelly has in sustaining the culture now that Herb Kelleher, the companys spiritual leader, has departed? The company provided free and satisfied environment to the employees. It had positive, innovative and simple culture which contributed to the growth of the company. (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). Garry Kelly was appointed as vice chairman of the board of directors in 2004. There are some problems that I foresee when Gary Kelly has sustaining the culture: Other rival airlines can copy their spirit and culture that can be problem for the company. Gary was applying changes according to his taste and the company was facing continuous changes. Hence it became difficult to survive in rapidly changing environment. There was no market stability because of the rapidly changes environment (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). QUESTION 5 What grade would you give Southwest management for the job it has done in implementing and executing the companys strategy? Which of Southwests strategy execution approaches and operating practices do you believe have been most crucial in accounting for the success that Southwest has enjoyed in executing its strategy? Are the any policies, procedures, and operating approaches at Southwest that you disapprove of or that are not working well? The southwest management should get the highest grade in my opinion. Employees maintenance has been crucial in accounting for the success of southwest airlines. The strategy of lowest price with accommodation was very tough but the southwest airlines made it easy (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). I disapprove due to the following reasons: Southwest should try to expand its existing route. They didnt have Miami International airport as hub even though it is a city of population with a large number in and out flights. Another policy was that the fat people had to take two tickets for being able to sit comfortably in the airline. This was embarrassing to the people who were overweight (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). QUESTION 6 What weaknesses or problems do you see at Southwest Airlines as of mid-2010? There were some problems that came in the mid of 2010 at the southwest airlines: It depended on only one producer. Southwest was running only one flight of 737 seats there must be some optional flight. Booking of flights became difficult because southwest had eliminated the intervention of agents because of commission amount. Southwest were only focusing on the economy class but have no attention towards business class who were willing to pay for their seats. Money was not the big issue for them (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). QUESTION 7 Does the Air Tran acquisition make good strategic sense for Southwest? Southwest have a very distinctive and unique culture. The Air Tran acquisition put significant risk. Southwest has one type of plane 737. With the acquisition of Air Tran it started flying the 717 to Mexico and the Caribbean. It was a big shift for southwest (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). The main base of Air Tran was Atlanta that was a huge delta hub while southwest had started to fly their flights out of the United States. This proves that the acquisition made a good sense not only in business perspectives but also for maintaining the cost effectiveness of the service (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). QUESTION 8 What strategic issues and problems do Gary Kelly and Southwest executives need to address as they proceed to close the deal with the Air Tran acquisition and contemplate how best to integrate Air Trans operations and Air Trans employees into Southwest? Some problems that need to address Gary and the southwest executives are: Southwest needed to incorporate Air Tran employees into the culture of Southwest that was serving good customer service, lowest costs and lowest charges. To analyze the level of Air Tran employees and the Southwest employees. They have to look on the opportunities and try to enhance business share. They have to analyze that how to conduct flights outside the United States (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008). QUESTION 9 What recommendations would you make to Gary Kelly and Southwest executives as the company heads into 2011? The following are the recommendations for the company: The company has to work on the long term goals. Strategies should be made in accordance with the fuel prices which usually act as a barrier to conventional business growth. Provision should be made for reservations to be performed directly on the site of southwest.com without any intervention of third parties. There must be opportunity for internet marketing. The management of the company should start travelling outside the United States for increasing the market shares. The turnaround time should be improved. The prices of the services should be kept as low as possible. Offering of different types of seating classes with different rates should be helpful for increasing the revenue (Arthur A. Thompson, 2008).

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments Lung Cancer Introduction Lung cancer is a kind of cancer that begins in the lungs. Lungs are the spongy organs in the chest that are responsible for taking in oxygen when one inhales and releases carbon-dioxide when one exhales. Lung cancer is the principal causation of cancer related deaths in the United States, amongst both women n and men. It claims more lives annually than does breasts, ovarian, prostate and colon cancers, all combined. People that smoke have the highest chances of suffering this ailment. The risk of this form of cancer increases with the number of cigarettes one smokes and the duration that one smokes. Lung cancer causes the demise of more than one million people worldwide in a single year. It is projected that roughly 90% of deaths caused by lung cancer in men and 75-80% overall deaths in the United States are owed to smoking. Vividly, lung cancer is a prevalent and imperative disease that constitutes a major health problem in the world. History In the past 150 years, lung cancer was non-existent. In the year 1878, only 1% represented the malignant lung cancers that were seen by the pathology institute of university of Dresden, Germany. By the year 1918, the percentage of cancer had risen to about 10% and by the year 1927 it had risen to more than 14%. It was noted in 1930 that t the turn of the new century the malignant tumors had begun to increase and may be even more by the end of World War I. It was noted that whilst most of the lung tumors happened to men, there seemed to be a rise of the tumors in women as well. The period of the disease from the time it was known to the time of death was usually between a year and two years at most. In all these cases of the patients diagnosed with the lung tumors, there had been a prolonged history of chronic bronchitis. The increase of lung cancer was said to have been on the rise due to several probable etiological factors: increase in air pollution by dust and gasses that were emitted by the industries; being exposed to gases in World War I; increased automobile traffic; and working with gasoline or benzene. Nevertheless, lung cancer cases rose at an equally alarming rate in the countries that had few automobiles, less industries and workers not exposed to gasoline and benzene. In several instances, smoking was mentioned as a possibility that caused lung cancer, but many investigations failed to confirm a link between lung cancer and smoking. There were however suspicions that smoking did actually contribute to the illness. However, in the year 1929, Fritz Linckint, a German physician, researched and published the findings that the lung cancer patients were most likely to be smokers. This led to his campaigns against smoking which led to the spread of anti-tobacco activism in Germany. The link amid lung cancer and smoking of cigarettes began to be prominent in the 1930s due to the suspicions of clinicians owed to the increase in the disease. After two decades, smoking was declared an agent that caused lung cancer. In the 1940s in Germany, lung cancer was the second frequent cause of cancer death after stomach cancer. Research by The German Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research postulated that amongst 109 lung cancer patients, only three were not smokers. It however took a very long time for the truth to sink in that there was a causative link between lung cancer and smoking. Most of the smokers as well as the physicians, who enjoyed cigarettes refused to trust that their habit was harmful to their health. In the 1500s two regions in Czechoslovakia and Germany, Joachimsthal and Schneeberg were productive mines that yielded arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, nickel and silver. The miners in these ores developed some deadly disease that the locals termed at â€Å"the mountain disease† that was labeled an occupational disease for the miners. Most thought that arsenic was the root cause of this lung cancer but it was later proven that it was the emissions of radium that was the cause. Lung Cancer Risks and Causes To a large extent, the biggest cause of lung cancer is smoking. Smoking causes over 8 out of ten lung cancer cases including a tiny fraction caused due to being exposed to second hand smoke for the non-smokers (passive smoking). The more an individual smokes, the higher the chances of getting lung cancer though the length of time that one stays a smoker is even more crucial than the number of cigarettes one takes a day. It is more harmful to start smoking at a a young tender age than starting as an adult. When one stops smoking it reduces the risks they have of contacting lung cancer as compared to continuing to smoke. The sooner one quits, the better their health. Passive smoking, breathing in other persons’ smoke from cigarettes, increases the possibility of lung cancer though it is much less if one smokes themselves. Cigarette smoking is therefore the major basis of lung cancer. Cigar and pipe smokers also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer as compared to those who do not smoke. They are also very likely to get cancer of the lip or mouth. In the past lung cancer was common with men than women, but nowadays since more women are smoking, it is also as common amongst women. Other risk factors that are known to cause lung cancer include: the exposure to radon gases and certain chemicals, air pollution, a previous lung disease, a family history of lung cancer, lowered immunity, previously smoking related cancers, and a past treatment of cancer. Radon gas is a natural radioactive gas that originates from the tiny deposits of uranium found in all soils and rocks. Radon gas is the second biggest cause of lung cancer after smoking. Exposure to radon gas increases the risk of getting lung cancer for the smokers. It is therefore advisable for the people living in areas prone to this gas to stop smoking since their chances of getting lung cancer are very high. Certain chemicals have been known to cause lung cancer: diesel exhaust, silica and asbestos. Contact with Asbestos was common in the 1960s in the shipbuilding and construction industries. Asbestos is still a lung cancer cause since the cancers take a pretty long time to develop. Smokers are at a higher risk of contacting lung cancer when exposed to asbestos. Silica is also a chemical that is used in glass making and is harmful to the human body since it causes a condition called silicosis. A person suffering from this illness has a very high chance of getting lung cancer, and once again, smokers are more at risk as compared to non-smokers. Air pollution has also been known to cause lung cancer. It however depends on the level of air pollution one exposes themselves to. People who have had previous diseases in the lungs have an increased rate of getting lung cancer. Adenocarcinoma of the lung is a form of lung cancer that occurs after one has had a disease in the past that caused a scar in the lungs. Tuberculosis is one such disease that can leave a scar in the lung. People who have suffered from tuberculosis have a double risk of getting lung cancer. The risk continues for over 20 years of the disease. Chlamydia pneumoniae is a kind of a bacterium known to cause chest infections. The people with the antibodies to Chlamydia pneumonia have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. The risk is even greater for the smokers. Family history of lung cancer could also be another risk factor to lung cancer. If a person has a first degree relative with the disease, their risk of lung cancer will be increased by 50%. This risk is however higher if a sister or brother has lung cancer, than the parent. This risk is not dependent on whether an individual smokes or not. Families with smokers could be exposed to smoke from cigarettes and therefore increase the chances of contacting lung cancer whether they have inherited a defective gene or not. Research has it that there is a likelihood that at least a single faulty gene could increase the risk of lung cancer and can be passed down in the family, inherited. There is evidence that particular treatments of cancer could increase the risks of lung cancer. An assessment into the cure for breast cancer shows that the ways of administering radiotherapy have in the past increased the risk of developing lung cancer. Oestrogen receptor negative patients suffering from breast cancer have a high risk of getting lung cancer. Other people who may also have increased chances of getting lung cancer are those that have been treated for a type of cancer of the womb, testicular cancer, and Hodgkin lymphoma. Just like in the past causes of cancer discussed above, the chances of getting lung cancer are more increased for the smokers. Persons who have had neck, head cancer, cervical cancer and oesophagal cancer have a high risk of lung cancer. This could be explained by the reason that all the mentioned cancers are common for smokers, though it could also be due to radiotherapy curative procedures. The drugs that people take after they have had organ transplants and the people with HIV/AIDS both have low immunity. People with HIV or AIDS therefore have a risk of lung cancer that is 3 times more than those that do not have the disease. People who use drugs that suppress immunity after they have had an organ transplant have a double the normal risk of lung cancer. People with autoimmune conditions such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. Signs and Symptoms of Lung Cancer Lung cancer may not produce any conspicuous symptoms during the early stages. In about 40% of persons diagnosed with lung cancer, diagnosis is normally made after the disease has already advanced. In most of the patients, the cancer advances to stage three for it to be detected. There are however some lung cancer symptoms that one ought to watch out for and seek medical attention early in advance. A new cough that lingers is one sign of lung cancer; since a cough related to a respiratory infection or cold should disappear within one to two weeks. One should not label a lingering cough as â€Å"just a cough† whether it is mucus producing or dry. It is therefore advisable to see a doctor immediately for testing. Changes in the cough is also trivial to note more so for the smokers. These changes include the cough having a hoarse and deeper sound, coughing up more mucus than normal or blood and coughing more often than is usual. Becoming easily breathless or experiencing shortness of breath are some probable indicators of lung cancer. This symptom could probably occur when the lung cancer narrows or blocks the airway, or when fluid from the lung tumor accumulates in the chest. This symptom should not be ignored for tiredness or dismissed for whatever reason. The presence of lung cancer can produce pain the back, shoulder and chest areas. The aching feeling could however not be accompanied by coughing. The chest pain caused by lung cancer is owed to a discomfort that is as a result of metastasis or the enlargement of lymph nodes to the ribs, pleura (lining in the lung region) or the chest wall. Wheezing is another symptom of lung cancer. The whistling or wheezing sound is produced by the lungs when one breaths, since the airways become inflamed, blocked and constricted by the occurrence of the tumor. Since wheezing is associated with treatable and benign causes, one should have it checked and not assume it since it could be a probable cause of lung cancer. The voice changes when one has lung cancer and becomes raspier, hoarse and deeper. Hoarseness in normal circumstances could be as a result of a simple cold, but when it persists to more than two weeks; it ought to be checked out. The hoarseness that is related to lung cancer occurs when a tumor tampers with the nerves that are responsible for controlling the voice box or larynx. A weight loss that cannot be explained of approximately 10 pounds or more may be linked to lung cancer or a different type of lung cancer. When there is a cancer in the body, ones weight drops as a result of the cancer cells using the energy in the body. It also tampers with the normal way in which the body uses energy acquired from food. Lung cancer could spread to the bones producing pain in the body and more so in the back. The pain is worse at night when the patient rests on their back. Lung cancer is also linked to pain in the neck, arm and shoulder. Headaches could be a sign that the lung cancer has spread to the brain. The headaches could also be triggered by pressure by the lung tumor on the superior vena cava (the large vein responsible for moving blood to the heart from the upper body). Prevention of Lung Cancer Several factors may help in the protection of lung cancer: diet, physical activity, aspirin and having multiple sclerosis. Vegetables and fresh fruits may help in the prevention of lung cancer since they contain chemicals that can prevent damage to cells. The antioxidant vitamins E, C and A, are also thought to help in the reduction of lung cancer. New evidence postulates that flavonoids in many vegetables and fruits help reduce the risk of lung cancer. Research is however ongoing to find out which exact nutrients in vegetables and fruits are of utmost help. Beta cryptoxanthin, found in fruits like mangoes and oranges may lower risk of lung cancer. Changing diet alone cannot reduce the risk of lung cancer much when one carries on smoking. The most vital thing is to quit smoking. Studies have shown that high levels of physical activity can lower the risk of lung cancer. This includes the activities at home, work and leisure activities such as golf and walking. Some research has it that taking aspirin may reduce the risk of lung cancer but other studies have not. Other studies postulate that aspirin intake may only reduce the risk in men or for people taking 7 tablets within a week. It is however not advisable to take aspirin on regular basis without the doctor’s instructions since it may cause bleeding or damage the stomach lining. People with multiple sclerosis, according to some research, have a low lung cancer risk. Types of Lung Cancer There are two main lung cancer types: Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer. The staging of lung cancer depends on whether the cancer has spread from lungs to lymph nodes or other organs, or whether the cancer is local. Since the lungs are very large, tumors can grow for a long duration before they are found. Symptoms such as fatigue and coughing may occur but people will always dismiss them thinking they are caused by other causes. Due to this reason, the early stages of lung cancer (stages I and II) are difficult to detect. Most people suffering from cancer are diagnosed at stages III and IV. Treatment Options for Lung Cancer There are four varied ways on how to treat lung cancer: targeted therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery. The options for treatment and recommendations highly depend on a number of factors such as the patient’s overall health and preferences, the possible side effects and the stage and type of lung cancer. The care plan also includes treatment for the symptoms and the side effects. Surgery A thoracic surgeon is mainly trained to perform lung cancer surgery. The aim of surgery in cancer treatment is to completely remove the lung tumor and the close by lymph nodes in the chest area. The tumor should be removed with a surrounding margin or border of normal lung tissue. Several types of surgery may possibly be used for lung cancer: Pneumonectomy, segmentectomy, a wedge, lobectomy, radiofrequency ablation and adjuvant therapy. Adjuvant therapy is the cure given after surgery to lessen the lung cancer risk returning. It involves chemotherapy, targeted therapy and radiation therapy. The intention behind adjuvant therapy is to rid the body of any cancer cells that may still be in the body after the surgery. Radiation therapy This is the application of high energy x-rays and other particles to destroy cells of cancer. A radiation oncologist gives radiation therapy to cancer patients. External-beam radiation therapy is the most regularly used form of radiation therapy used that is given by use of a machine that is outside the body. Brachytherapy, radiation treatment using implants, in not used for lung cancer. Lung cancer patients who undergo radiation therapy experience loss of appetite and fatigue. If therapy is administered in the center of the chest or neck, patients may have difficulty swallowing or experience a sore throat. Chemotherapy This is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells through stopping the cancer cells growth and division. Chemotherapy has been proven to improve the quality and length of life for the lung cancer patients in all stages. Common ways of administering chemotherapy is through placing an intravenous (IV) tube that is placed in the vein by use of needle or a capsule or pill administered orally. Chemotherapy side effects depend on the dose used and individual. They include hair loss, diarrhea, appetite loss, vomiting, nausea, fatigue and risk of infection. The side effects normally go away when the treatment is finished. Targeted therapy This form of treatment blocks the spread and growth of cancer cells whilst limiting harm to healthy cells. For lung cancer, the types of targeted therapy administered include anti-angiogenesis therapy. Conclusion It is not always possible to recover fully from cancer. When the treatment does not succeed, the disease is called terminal or advanced cancer. Diagnosis is very stressful for many patients to discuss. It is however crucial to have an honest and open discussion with the healthcare team or doctor to express concerns, preferences and feelings. Patients with advanced cancer and expected to live for less than six months should consider palliative care known as hospice. Hospice care is intended to provide the possible best quality life for people near the end of life. Arius and Athanasius | Analysis Arius and Athanasius | Analysis SYPNOSIS Arius and Athanasius were archrivals of the Arian controversy. Arius was the leading father in Arianism whilst Athanasius was the defender of the Nicene Theology for orthodox Christianity against Arianism. As Arianism rejects the divinity of Christ, salvation to mankind was at stake. Athanasius advocates the consubstantiality of the three persons of the trinity which was crucial argument to defend the divinity of Christ. Consequently Athanasius had built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine which together with the humanity of Christ represents the complete Trinitarian theology. I. INTRODUCTION The fourth century church experienced a major crisis in understanding Gods divine nature, characteristics and relationship with members of the Godhead. This Arian controversy centred upon two archrival theologians, Arius and Athanasius.1 The controversy represented a new phase of doctrinal development of the Godhead and led to the Council of Nicaea in 325 and the Churchs first ecumenical statement of the Trinity. 2 Athanasius was the champion of Nicene Theology, who greatly defended the traditional Christianity against the Arian heresy.3 Section II of this essay will briefly discuss the background of Arius, and summarize his basic theology. Section III will provide an overview about Athanasiuss life, Athanasius theology in conjunction with his defence against the Arians heretic claims. Finally, the conclusion will be drawn in Section IV. II. THE ARIAN CONTROVERSY The ‘Arian controversy ignited in 318, when Arius openly taught his heretic teachings that denied the full divinity of the Son. Consequently, Arius challenged his bishop (Alexander of Alexandria) and teachers of Alexandria to an Christological conflict.4 The controversy lasted for nearly half a century and became the confrontation between the two archrivals, the ‘Nicene party and Origenists.5 Athanasius coined the names ‘Arian and ‘Arians as pejorative political and theological slurs against Arius and his opponents, who disagreed with him on the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, and those meant the Son as a creature or held fast to Arius basic position. Cf. Thomas G. Weinandy, Athanasius: a Theological Introduction (Hampshire, England: Ashgate Publishing, 2007), 51-52. Donald K. McKim, Theological Turning Points: Major Issues in Christian Thought (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988), 14. Justo L. Gonzà ¡lez, The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of The Reformation (3 vols., New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1984, Vol. 1), 173. Johannes Quasten, Pathology: The Golden Age of Greek Patristic Literature. From the Council of Nicaea to the council of Chalcedon (Utrecht, Netherlands: Spectrum Publishers, 1963, Vol. III), 66. Bruce L. Shelly, Church History in Plain Language (2nd Ed., Dallas, Texas: Word Publishing, 1995), 100. Everett Ferguson (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Early Christianity (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1990), 8485, 92. The controversy roots lay deep in â€Å"the differences of the ante-Nicene doctrine of the Logos, especially in the two contradictory half truths of Origens Christology, which was claimed by both archrivals ― the full divinity of Christ and his eternal distinctness from the Father.6 Conclusively, the Arians were the catalysts, rather than the main participants.7 II.1. ARIUS AND HIS DOCTRINE Trained in the Lucian School, Arius was called one of the heretical fathers of Arianism.8 Arianism was a heretical doctrine of theological rationalism, based on the teachings of Lucian of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, and Neoplatonic theory of subordinationism.9 Arius wrote very little and only a few fragments survived. Thalia was his only own writing which Athanasius recited.10 Most information about Arius life and his doctrine came from Athanasius writings.11 Influenced by Origen, Arius rejected the term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) and insisted the concrete and distinct three persons (Ï€ÏÆ'Ï„Î ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹Ãâ€š) of the Godhead, a separate essence and the subordination of the Son to Father.12 Nicene split the church into two major groups: 1) The ‘Nicene party― consisted of the West, the school of Antioch and other in the East like Athanasius. They affirmed the full deity of Jesus Christ, but were less clear on the eternal threeness of the Godhead. They did not deny the distinction between Father, Son and Holy Spirit (i.e. they were not Monarchians), but they did not state it as forcefully as the Origenists wanted and so appeared to them to be Monarchian. (2) The Origenists ― were strong on the threeness of the Godhead, but less clear on the deity of Jesus Christ. They were not Arians (i.e. they did not see Jesus Christ as a creature made out of nothing), but they held him to be inferior t o the Father and so appeared Arian to the Nicene party. Cf. Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought (Rev. ed., London: TT Clark, 2006), 30. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology (3rd ed.; Toronto, New York London: Funk Wagnalls Company, 1894, Vol. 1) 134137. Cf. http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010). Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, 30-31. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. Cf. http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7. Ephiphanius, Panarion 69,4. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,4. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 15. Note: Scholars still debate over the ideological forerunner of Arius doctrine, whether it was derived from the theories of Origen, or of Paul of Samosata, or of Lucian of Antioch. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 6-8. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, I.5,6; Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381 (Edinburgh: T T Clark Ltd., 1988), 11. And a few sources from the church historians of the fourth and fifth centuries, and from the letters of St. Basil and of Epiphanius of Salamis. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10-13. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. John Behr, The Way to Nicaea: The Formation of Christian Theology (3 vols.; Crestwood, New York: St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 2001, Vol. 1), 200-201. Arius denied all internal divine relations existing between the Father and the Son ― the eternal deity of Christ and his equality with the Father (ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ±).13 II.2. A SUMMARY OF ARIUS THEOLOGY Arius basic doctrine:14 (1) Godhead is uncreated, unbegotten (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š), without beginning;15 (2) The Son of God cannot be truly God. The Son is the first of Gods creatures, a secondary God, â€Å"god by participation.† Like the other creations, â€Å"the Son is not unbegotten (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š),† â€Å"he is one of the things fashioned and made,† 16 brought out ex nihilo (ÃŽ ¾ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ º ÃŽ ½Ãâ€žÃâ€°ÃŽ ½). â€Å"There was a time when the Son of God was not (ÃŽ ½ Ï„Î µ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ º ÃŽ ½).†17 â€Å"Neither does the Son indeed know his own substance as it is,† â€Å"he was created for our sake, rather than we for his.† â€Å"He is the Son of God not in the metaphysical, but in the moral sense of the word.†18 By the will of God, the Son has his statute and character (á ¼ ¥ÃŽ »ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ºÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š ÃŽ ºÃŽ ±Ã¡ ¼ ° ÏÆ'ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š).† â€Å"The Son is by his nature; changeable, mutable, equally with other rational beings.† The Father is ineffable to the Son; for neither does the Word (Logos) perfectly and accurately know the Father, neither can he perfectly see Him (the Father).†19 (3) â€Å"The title of God is improper for the Son of God, since the only true God adopted him as Son in prevision of his merits.† This sonship by adoption insists â€Å"no real participation in the divinity and no true likeness to it;† Thus, the absolute and eternal divinity of Christ 13 Epiphanius, Panarion 69.6.1ff. Theodoret of Cyrus, Haereticarum fabularum compendium (History of Heresies) I.5. Cf. Philip Schaff, ‘Arius in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology,139. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7-8. 14 Epiphanius, Panarion 69,6. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,5,1-4. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,6. Gelasius of Cyzicus, Historia conc. Nic. 2,3. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8, 14, 15-16.Cf. Athanasius, Epistula encyclical ad episcopos Aegypti et Libyae, 12. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters (Philip Schaff ed.; Grand Rapids, Mi: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1892), 229. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_229.html (25 April 2011). 15 Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1.4.1. See also the conclusion in Arius first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. 16 Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. 17 See the Arius conclusion in his first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Athanius, De Synodis, II.26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 8. 18 Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 12. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. 19 Italic words are mine. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 7. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 15. 3 is to be denied.20 (4) The Logos is created by God as the instrument of creation. The Logos holds a middle place between God and the world is made flesh by the will of the Father and fulfilled in Jesus Christ the function of a soul, â€Å"though divine, was less than fully divine.† 21 (5) The Holy Spirit is the first creature of the Logos, and is still less God than the Word. III. ATHANASIUS AND HIS THEOLOGY Though Athanasius was not a systematic theologian, his greatest dedication in life was the fierce defence of orthodox Christianity against the Arian heresy. 22 He was so identified with the cause that the successive history of the Arian controversy is best told by following Athanasius life.†23 The three discourses of Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, were his main dogmatic writings targeted against Arianism.24 The first discourse contained the definition of the Nicene Council ― there is a unity of divine essence between the Father and the Son, and the Son is eternal, increated (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š) and unchangeable.25 III.1. ATHANASIUS Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Cf. the following citation: â€Å"The leaders in the Arian movement (Arius himself, Eusebius of Nicomedia, Maris and Theognis) received their training under Lucian and always venerated him as their master and the founder of their system. Later critics of Lucian, including Alexander of Alexandria, during the Council of Nicaea in 325, associated his school with Ariuss rejection of the absolute divinity of Christ. No one before Lucian of Antioch and Arius had taught that the Logos is categorically different from God.† of ‘Lucian of Antioch in New Word Encyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Lucian_of_Antioch (10 April 2011). Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 100-101. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67-68. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. Justo L. Gonzà ¡lez, The Story of Christianity, 166. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26. The systematic and reliable ancient account of Athanasius could be found in the framework, such as Historia acephala and Festal Index.26 Ordained as deacon to his bishop Alexander in Alexandria, Athanasius accompanied Alexander to the Council at Nicaea (325). Later he succeeded Alexander and became the bishop of Alexandria (328-373).27 Athanasius, as a leading Christian writer of NeoAlexandrine School, adopted the historic-grammatical interpretation of Scripture (which the School of Antioch advocated) in all polemical and theological controversy with the Arians.28 The Arians enlisted the support of secular power and corrupt church authority to silence and destroy Athanasius. When Athanasius refused Constantines order to readmit Arius to communion, his opponents launched all kind of allegations, causing calumnies further to increase.29 For instance, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia, the bishops of the Tyrian Synod condemned Athanasius with charges which he could not escape. They exiled Athanasius to Trier and restored Arius to church communion and reinstate him into the rank of the clergy.30 The history about Athanasius life is also found in his own writings and the Syriac introduction to his Festal Letters, also in Historia acephala or called Historia Athanasii, Gregory Nazianzens Oration 21, and some fragments of a Coptic eulogy. Cf. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (2nd Printing 1994; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 5. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘Athanasius in Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Mainentry=t100.e116 (18 March 2011). Cf. David Hugh Farmer, ‘Athanasius in The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 1. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20-21. Athanasius was firstly charged with murder (sorcery and murder of Arsenius, a Meletian bishop in the Thebaid). His second charge was a political kind (he had threatened to stop the Alexandrian corn-ships).His third charge was his order to assault the presbyter Ischyras. Cf. ‘St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/athanasius (18 March 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 9. Archibald Robertson, Select Writings and Letters of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria: Edited, with Prolegomena, Indices, and Titles (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Cushing-Malloy Inc., 1978), lxxxvi. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part1, 165-166. For the letter, see H.I. Bell, Jesus and Christians in Egypt (London: 1924), 53-71. Because of Arian controversy, Athanasius spent seventeen of his forty-five years as bishop in five different exiles.31 This situation happened, probably â€Å"because his Defence against the Arians gave so full an account.†32 Athanasius was likened to â€Å"a modern gangster,† â€Å"an unscrupulous politician,†33 because of â€Å"his oppressive and violent authoritative nature.†34 However he had never been formally charged with heresy,35 and some mentioned that he was the pillar of the church;†36 And the Roman Church hailed him among the four great Fathers of the East.37 III.2. ATHANASIUS THEOLOGY Alexander and his successor Athanasius laid emphasis on Origens insistence on the Sons eternal divinity related to the existence of God as Father rather than creator, which had led to the Nicene doctrine of the identity of substance (ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ±). Athanasius prioritized faith over reason, contrary to Arians rationalistic tendency.38 Athanasius theological approach was centred on Soteriology.39 He was committed to monotheism.40 But Arius account of God was incoherent since on one interpretation it was similar to the radical Judaic monotheism, and the other interpretation of it (one that emphasized â€Å"the Son is god in some secondary sense†) was equivalent to a kind of polytheism ― two gods, namely one God who is ingenerate and 31 Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, . Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/atha nasius (18 March, 2011). See also, Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 20. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 239-273, 422. Cf. David M. Gwynn, The Eusebians: The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the Construction of the Arian Controversy (Oxford Theological Monographs; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 2. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 6. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part 1, 167. Cf. Adolf Harnack, History of Dogma, (6 vols; trans. Neil Buchanan; New York: Dover Publications,1961, Vol. 4), 62. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma4.ii.ii.i.i.iii.html (25 April 2011). Gregory of Nazianzus, The Orations 21, 26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. The four great Fathers of the Eastern Church ― John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Athanasius of Alexandria ― were recognized in 1568 by Pope St. Pius V. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘Church Fathers in Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church (6 April 2011). Athanasius, In Illud ‘Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 423. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 425. one who is generated. This resulted in two incongruous accusations against the Arians that they were no better than Jews and that they were identical with pagans. 41 Unlike the Arians, who needed the Son as a lower god to reconcile an incomparable and impassable God with the Scriptural message that God suffered for humankinds salvation, Athanasius dealt with the self-revelation of God who had come into the closest contact with His creation (Jn 14:9).42 Athanasius endeavoured to substantiate â€Å"the very tradition, teaching, and faith of the Catholic Church from the beginning, which the Lord gave, the Apostles preached, and the Fathers kept.† Athanasius maintained, â€Å"I have delivered the tradition, without inventing anything extraneous to it.† The tradition was that the one God is a Triad.43 Trinity At the heart of Athanasiuss theology of Incarnation lay his doctrine of Trinity,44 summed up as follows: There is a Trinity, holy and complete, consistent, eternal and indivisible in nature, not composed of one that creates and one that originated, but all creative, called to be God in Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Father does all things â€Å"through the Word (the Son) in the Holy Spirit†. Their activity is one, and their unity is preserved. The Trinity is Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.67, I.17, 18, III.16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 426. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 28-33. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. Brian LePort, An Introduction to the Letters of Serapion on the Holy Spirit by Athanasius of Alexandria, 18. http://westernseminary.academia.edu/BrianLePort/Papers/172851/An_Introduction_to_the_Letters_of_Serapi on_on_the_Holy_Spirit_by_Athanasius_of_Alexandria. (21 April 2011). Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.15; Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 402. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_402.html (20 April 2011). R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. â€Å"not only in name and form of speech but in truth and actuality.† Thus one God, â€Å"who is overall (Eph. 4:6), and through all and in all.†45 Athanasius constantly defended the ontological unity of the Father and the Son through his Scriptural argument. He proved the divinity of Christ and of Holy Spirit,46 because â€Å"if we participate in Christ, we must then participate in God, if our redemption is to be assured.† 47 Athanasius refuted Arius claims that the Son was a creature and had come into being from ‘non-existence, and that â€Å"there was a time when He was not.† Athanasius argued that there can be only one Son ― the eternal Word and Wisdom of the substance of God the Father, and that the Word is always coexistent with the Father, who is the creator and Lord of all, to whom all things owed their existence.48 Athanasius rejected the Arian position that the very name ‘Son presumes His being generated, and that the Son (th e Word) is a work of the will of God for the creation of the world. Athanasius argued that to be begotten implies to be â€Å"an offspring of the Fathers essence, not of His will,† since â€Å"begetting in God differs from human begetting† because of Gods indivisibility. Because the Son is in the Father and proper to Him, as the radiance in the light and stream from fountain, Athanasius asserted that the Sons eternal relation to the Father is essential Italic words are mine. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 2, 12, 14, 16, 19-20, 25, 27, 31; III, 15. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24, 25. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66-67. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 427. Athanasius, De incarnation et contra Arianos, 13-19. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 422. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 29. Kurt Aland, A History of Christianity: From the Beginnings to the Threshold of the Reformation (Trans. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980, Vol. 1), 191. Athanasius, Vita antonii, 69. Athanasius, Depositio Arii, 2, 3. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 11. Athanasius, â€Å"On Luke X.22 (Matt. XI.27)† in In Illud ‘Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 4. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, III.4; Cf. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 214. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_214.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 70. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_70.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 89. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_89.html (18 April 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. and not merely moral as Arius viewed.49 Also, Athanasius refuted the Docetic views of the Arians and Apollonarians on the relationship of the historical Christ to the eternal Son. 50 Arius maintained, based on Proverbs 8:22ff, that the Sons mediatory ontological status between God and creation was necessary, because â€Å"the Father was too high and mighty, or too proud to carry out the work of creation himself,† and â€Å"therefore begot the Son† as â€Å"the minister of the intentions of the Father.†51 However, Athanasius argued that the terms applied to the Incarnate and not the pre-existent Christ; Thus, Athanasius implied that the mediating activity of the Son is not in his position within the Godhead, but in his becoming Incarnate. So, Athanasius placed the Son (Logos) on the side of God, opposite Arius placement of the Son on the side of the creatures.52 Athanasius insisted that â€Å"the Son has in common with the Father the fullness of the Fathers Godhead† and â€Å"the Son is entirely God.†53 Against Arius subordination of the Son, Athanasius argued that if the Son says, â€Å"The Father is greater than I,† He means that, â€Å"The Father is the origin, the Son the derivation.†54 â€Å"Eternally begotten, the Son is the Fathers substance, He is consubstantial to the Father, He is ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š.†55 Athanasius also rejected the term ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š as unacceptable. So, Athanasius defended the term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š against the Arians and Semi-Arians.56 Consequently, Athanasius disapproved what the Arians claim ― a ‘proceeding origin for the Father and the Son.57 Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. J ohannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67-68. Athanasius, Epistula ad Epictetum episcopum Corinthi, 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 59. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24-25. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 101. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, II.25; I.16; III.3, 6; II.41; III.3,4. Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318381, 424. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos I.16; III.6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 68. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos III, 3; Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69-70. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 434. Logos and Redemption Athanasius theology of the Logos centred upon the concept of redemption.58 For Athanasius, the redeeming will of God necessitated the incarnation of Christ and his death. If God Himself had not become man, and if Christ were not God, there would not have been redemption for mankind.59 This can only required that Christ was God by nature, not by participation, because the latter could never have formed the likeness of God in anyone. Thus, Athanasius refuted the Arian concept of the Son as god by participation.60 Christology Athanasius theology upheld the real distinction between the divinity and humanity after the Incarnation, yet emphasized the personal unity of Christ. Consequently, whatever the Lord did as God and as human being belongs to the same person.61 Athanasius refuted the Arian charge of creature-worship directed against the Nicene Christology with the argument, that Catholics do not worship the humanity of Christ, but the Lord of creation, the Word Incarnate.62 Holy Spirit By maintaining that the Spirit â€Å"is no creature, but is one with the Son as the Son is one with the Father, [the Spirit] is glorified with the Father and the Son, and confessed as God with the Word,† Athanasius rejected the idea of the Holy Spirit being one of the Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 9, 54. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 70-71. Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 8. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71. Athanasius, De Synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71-72. Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology,72. Athanasius, Epistula ad Adelphium et confessorem, 3. Athanasius, â€Å"Letter LX. ― To Adelphius, Bishop and Confessor: against the Arians† in NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 575. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_575.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, ministering spiritual creatures, and insisted the Godhead of the Holy Spirit according t o the Nicene Creed.63 Athanasius defended the non-scriptural Nicene term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) and ÃŽ º Ï„Ï‚ ÃŽ ¿ÃÆ'ÃŽ ±Ãâ€š (of the essence). He claimed that these terms were to be found in the Scripture, and they had already been used by the Church Fathers, including Tertullian, Origen, Dionysius of Rome, Dionysius of Alexandria and Theognostus.64 Against the claims of the heretic Arians and Tropicists, Athanasius gave the reasons for adopting the word ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) for both the Son and the Spirit in relation to the Father, and proved that the Nicaeas Trinitarian formula was in accordance with Scripture.65 Athanasius accused the Arians of teaching that God was not always a Trinity since the Son has not always existed, and also of dividing the Trinity because they attributed different natures to the Father and the Son.66 Arianism attacks the very nature of Christianity because it denotes â€Å"a God who was not a true God at all†, who was â€Å"in no position to communicate salvation† to humans, and therefore â€Å"incapable for redeeming mankind†.67 The Arian doctrine, which formed a canon Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 1, 15-21, 27, 31; III.1. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos II, 25, 26, 73, 74. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67. For a discussion of Athanasiuss use of homoousious of the Spirit, see Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God: the Holy Spirit as the Universal Touch and Goal (Collegeville, Minnesota, USA: Liturgical Press, 2003), 18, 74, 126. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 18. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 163. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_163.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 61. Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi (Letter Concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea) was written about 350/351 and addressed by Athanasius to one of his friends, to whom the Arian claim had caused confusion. Whereas and Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum (the four letters concerning the Holy Spirit) was written by Athanasius around 359/360 and addressed to Serapion to refute the heretic tropicists, who opposed the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 57, 61. Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God: the Holy Spirit as the Universal Touch and Goal, 18. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424. Athanasius, De synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 7. of scriptural misinterpretation, was a slander against the Fathers. 68 The worship which the Arians offered to God was a blasphemous idolatry. 69 Athanasius defended the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, successfully explained the nature and generation of the Logos, built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine of the Church, and thus established the theological foundation for centuries to come.70 Athanasius Christological weakness In his Christology, Athanasius did not assign any important role to the human soul of Christ. In fact, When the Arians objected the divinity of Christ by referring to the Scriptural passages which mention the inner suffering, fear and affliction of the Logos, Athanasius never made use the opportunity and never attacked the Arians in this error, because it dealt with the human soul of Christ. 71 Christs death is to Athanasius is a separation of Logos and body.72 Athanasius theology was based on Logos-Sarx theology. In relation to Orationes contra Arianos (III.35-37) its weakness was revealed when Athanasius could not comment to the Arians in: (1) the connecting link between the Logos and his flesh; (2) the existence of a human soul in Christ.73 Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 1. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos I.8, II.43, III.16. Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 13. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Ari What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity? What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity? Thesis: the greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. LINK TO IMPACT ON BIODIVERSITY (EFFECT) AQUACULTURE (CAUSE) Intro Aquaculture can be thought of as a practice that it similar to farming. It involves the cultivation of aquatic dwelling organisms either on land, in a tank system or artificial pond (offshore), or in a naturally occurring waterbody using nets or cages to contain the farmed organisms (Lee and Yoo 2014; Rabasso and Hernandez 2015). Aquaculture as an industry has grown significantly in the past few decades, growing to meet the demanding needs of the human food supply network (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008; Borja et al. 2009; Rabasso and Hernandez 2015), as it is an important natural resource (Ormerod 2003). This increase in captive cultivation has slowed the unsustainable practice of mass catching wild stocks as a supply (Santos et al. 2015; Frazer 2009). Aquaculture exists as one of the fastest growing industries in the world today (Naylor et al. 2001), and this growth is projected to increase ever further (Froehlic et al. 2017). Despite this, many of these cultured organisms can have a nega tive impact on the environment that they inhabit (Fleming et al. 1996; Boyd 2003), in part because of its proximity with the natural environment (Abdou et al. 2017). Aquaculture has the ability to greatly impact biodiversity as well if not carefully managed. These impacts on biodiversity can resonate through multiple trophic levels, and can completely change the natural environment. The greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. Through these modes of disruption, aquaculture has the ability to drastically alter the present biodiversity if not managed appropriately. #1: the possible invasion of escapees The possibility of escaped organisms invading a habitat, and pushing out a native species is quite high when aquaculture is in or near existing waterbodies. A wide variety of organisms are farmed in the world (Naylor et al. 2001). From this, Aquaculture has led to the introduction of many invasive species into the ecosystem, and poor practices may cause invasion occurrences to happen more often (Naylor et al. 2001). The escape of cultured organisms can threaten both the habitats and gene pool of wild populations, causing them, and the surrounding biodiversity to change drastically (Fleming et al. 1996). The organisms that are either intentionally, or unintentionally released are able to reproduce in their new habitat rather successfully (Fleming et al. 1996; Volpe 2000). Many escapes such as salmon, are able to out compete, and out number the wild populations, thus threatening their survival (Fleming et al. 1996). Their invasion may lead to a change in ecosystem dynamics, effectively impacting the natural biodiversity that would otherwise be present. #2: the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication The degradation of the natural environment is just one of the many drawbacks that Aquaculture presents. As a result of the exponential growth of the industry, the sustainability and environmental impact of Aquaculture is often scrutinized (Rabasso and Hernandez 2015) for the elevated levels of greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient pollution, water use, and land use that has followed (Gephart et al. 2016). There are many detrimental practices to Aquaculture such as: water pollution from pond discharge, the excessive use of antibiotics to combat disease, Salinization of land from pond leeching, and the mass consumption of freshwater for farming purposes (Boyd 2003). Many of these practices degrade the environment, and threaten biodiversity in such a way that is irreversible. Aquaculture, and in particular fish farms, are an increasing cause of anthropogenic disturbance [in] benthic communities, (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008). Often when farmed within an natural waterbody, fish cages and nets s ee the release of large quantities of organic waste matter that are spread by water-flow and may lead to biochemical changes, and cause the deoxygenation of the aquatic environment, further impacting benthic communities (Zhang and Kitazawa 2016; Diaz-Almela et al. 2008; OCarroll et al. 2016). In the aquaculture industry, fish farming can promote an increased rate of eutrophication which can severely damage coastal ecosystems (Yu et al. 2016) through the addition of elements such as Nitrogen and Phosphorous (Penczak et al. 1982). The damage caused by eutrophication can lead to a disturbance like effect, which can in turn, cause a significant decrease in the biodiversity of that area (Abdou et al. 2017), further degrading the environment. In an attempt to combat the damage caused when farming within a natural ecosystem, many countries of the European Union (including Canada, the United States, and Australia) are beginning to establish offshore farming with the hope for improved sustainability (Froehlic et al. 2017). Social Learning Theory: Outline and Evaluate Social Learning Theory: Outline and Evaluate Ellie Thomas Criminology Outline what is meant by the term identification in relation to the social learning theory approach. [2 marks] Identification is a psychological process whereby someone identifies with something from another person, typically a model of theirs, and then uses this in order to change their personality. For example, a little boy may identify with his older brother because they are both male, and so when he sees him stealing from a shop, he copies. Explain one limitation of the social learning theory approach. [3 marks] This approach is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do. Outline and evaluate the social learning theory approach. Refer to the behaviourist approach as part of your evaluation. Even though the social learning theory (SLT) does agree with the behaviourist theory that most of our behaviour is learned through experience Bandura also propose the idea that people can learn through different way, e.g. observation and imitation. Learning does occur through classical and operant conditioning; however, we can also learn indirectly through watching others and learning from mistakes. Another word for this is vicarious reinforcement; learning through observing and imitating; indirectly. An individual observes the behaviour of someone and if the behaviour is received positively, they would learn that they can do that, and if it is received negatively, they will know to never do it. So, if someone is punished we learn not to copy the behaviour, and if someone is rewarded we know that we should or could repeat that behaviour! A huge idea throughout the SLT approach is the role of mediational processes. This is the concept that mental processes effect our behaviour. These mental factors, or mediational processes, created by Bandura, are: attention the extent to which we notice certain behaviours; retention how well the behaviour is remembered; motor reproduction the ability to perform the behaviour; and motivation the will to perform the behaviour. Identification is also a key concept in SLT. This is when people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people we identify with. These are known as models. We can find models in people we find attractive, family, friends, and peers, and people of high status. If we see our model behaving in a certain way, we are more lily to copy it (imitate it). One strength of the social learning theory is that it is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do. Another strength of this approach is that it explains cultural differences in behaviour. This theory can explain how people living in Nigeria behave differently to people living in England, for example, because it says our behaviour is through learning from those around us and the societies in which we live. This has been a useful concept in understanding why children from different countries act differently, for example how they come to understand their gender role. A final strength of the social learning theory approach is that it shows the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Conditioning alone, whether it operant, classical, or both, cannot provide a good enough explanation for behaviour. Humans and animals alike learn and remember behaviours which they should do. For example, from a young child children learn from their older siblings mistakes and therefore avoid doing that punished behaviour. Bandura observed a similar thing with his bobo doll, as when children were shown an adult hitting a bobo doll and getting away with it, they repeated the behaviour, however when they saw an adult getting in trouble for it, they didnt. Therefore, this is a strength because it provides a more comprehensive and detailed explanation of behaviour. However, a weakness of the SLT approach is that it over-relies on evidence from lab studies. Many of the ideas that Bandura developed were all tested through lab studies, and not real life situations. Studies done in labs can often not be a true reflection of what the researcher is investigating because of this. For example, the children in Banduras bobo doll experiment may have understood that as they were not in a real-life situation being shown a video of an aggressive adult, for example they were supposed to copy the behaviours of the adult or they may have acted the way they thought they were supposed to. Therefore, the research may tell us little about how the children truly would have behaved. A final evaluation point of this approach is the weakness that the SLT underestimates the influence of biological factors. Little reference to biological factors are mentioned by Bandura in this approach. However, we can see from his studies that biology does take a toll. For example, boys were found to be more aggressive towards the bobo doll, however we know that testosterone is a hormone found naturally in males, that makes them more aggressive by nature. Therefore, we cannot put down their behaviour entirely to learning, as biology must play a role in it.